CROATANS : 
THE  LOST  COLONY 
OF 
AMERICA 


STEPHEN  B.  WEEKS 

CLASS  OF  1886:  PUD.  THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY 


OF  THE 

rwMMn 

HIE  WEEKS  CdDLILECTnON 


CP970.03 

M52c 


m 


UNIVERSITY  OF  N.C.  AT  CHAPEL  HILL 


00032203856 

FOR  USE  ONLY  IN 
THE  NORTH  CAROLINA  COLLECTION 


h 


TH  E 


MID-CONTINENT  MAGAZINE 


(  Formerly  The  Southern  Magazine. 


Vol.  VI. 


JULY*,  1895. 


No.  3. 

OM  Series  Wo.  IS 


CROATANS:  THE  LOST  COLONY  OF  AMERICA. 


JY    FRANCES   JOXES    MELTON. 


IF  we  are  to  have  a  return  of  ro- 
mance in  fiction  writing  there  is 
no  place  in  America  richer  in  material 
than  the  portion  of  North  Carolina, 
where  there  may  be  found  to-day  the 
supposed  descendants  of  ' '  The  Lost 
Colony  of  America." 

For  nearly  three  centuries  the  fate 
of  those  colonists  has  been  a  theme  of 
historical  speculation  ;  and  probably 
when  the  last  word  about  them  shall 
have  been  written,  these  mystical  cap- 
ital letters,  CROATAN,  carved  on  the 
tree  inside  the  entrance  to  the  frontier 
palisade,  will  remain  as  inscrutable  as 
they  were  to  the  bewildered  savage 
who  took  possession  after  Roanoke  had 
been  abandoned  by  the  colonists. 

Briefly,  the  story  of  the  lost  colony 
is  that  they  were  sent  from  England 
by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  'in ^5^7-^ bout 
one  hundred  and  fifty  strong ^>mler 
Governor  John  White,  and  landed  on 
Roanoke  Island. 

After  a  little  while  Governor  White 
found  it  necessary  to  go  back  to  Eng- 
land for  supplies.  For  some  reason 
he  did  not  return  to  America  for  three 
years,  notwithstanding  he  had  left  his 
own  family  among  the  waiting  colo- 
nists on  Roanoke  Island. 

When  he  at  last  came  back,  he  found  no 
trace  of  those  whom  he  had  left  behind 
when  he  departed  for  England  three 
years  before,  except  the  wo^f  "  Croa- 
tan ' '  carved  upon  a  tree  within  the 
palisade  ;  ' '  which  letters, ' '  fee  saVs  in  a 
report  of  the  last   voyage,  "presently 


we  knew  to  signify  the  place  where  I 
should  find  the  planters  seated,  accord- 
ing to  a  secret  token  agreed  upon  be- 
tween them  and  me  at  my  last  depart- 
ure from  them,  which  was  that  in  any 
way  they  should  not  fail  to  write  or 
carve  on  the  trees  or  posts  of  the  doors 
the  name  of  the  place  where  they  should 
be  seated,  for  at  my  coming  away  they 
were  prepared  to  remove  from  Roanoke 
fifty  miles  into  the  main.  Therefore,  at 
my  departure  from  them  in  August, 
1587,  I  willed  them  that,  if  they  should 
happen  to  be  distressed  in  any  of  those 
places,  they  should  carve  over  the  let- 
ters or  name  a  cross  ( t )  i  u  this  form , 
but  we  found  no  such  sign  of  distress. 
And,  having  well  considered  of  this,  we 
passed  through  the  place  where  they 
were  left  in  sundry  houses,  but  we  found 
the  houses  taken  down  and  the  place 
very  strongly  enclosed  with  a  high  pal- 
isade of  great  trees,  with  curtains  and 
flankers,  very  fort-like,  and  one  of  the 
chief  trees  or  posts  at  the  right  side  of 
\  the  entrance  had  the  bark  taken  off, 
;and  five  feet  from  the  ground  in  fair 
capital  letters  was  graven  'Croatan,' 
withoiit  any  cross  or  sign  of  distress. 
This  done  we  entered  into  the  palisade, 
where  we  found  man}'  bars  of  iron,  two 
pigs  of  lead,  four  iron  fowlers,  iron 
locker,  shot  and  such  heavy  things 
thrown  here  and  there,  almost  over- 
grown with  grass  and  weeds. ' ' 

"But,  although  it  grieved  me  much 
to ^/  " 
othe 


dui,  uiLiiougu  11  gueveu  iiic  uiutu 
ij^ejjsuch  «%>oil  Q&my  goods,  yet  on  the 
.her  side  I  greatly  joyed  that  I  had 


Coypright,  rHys,  bi  </■'.  C.  Nunemacher.     All  rights 


CROATANS:    THE  LOST  COLONY  OF  AMERICA. 


Hamilton    McMillan    says  concern-    land  deed  made  by  King   George  the 
ing  the  Croatans  :   "At  the  coming  of    Second,  and  recognized  as  a  chief  man 


white  settlers  there  was  found  located 
on  the  waters  of  Lumber  river  a  large 
tribe  of  Indians,  speaking  English, 
tilling  the  soil,  owning  slaves  and 
practicing  many  of  the  arts  of  civilized 
life.  They  occupied  the  country  as  far 
west  as  the  Pedee,  but  their  princi- 
pal seat  was  on  the  Lumber,  extend- 
ing for  twenty  miles  along  that  river. 
They  held  their  lands  in  common,  and 
land  titles  only  became  known  on  the 
approach    of    white    men.      The    first 


in  his  tribe,  is  described  as  an  Indian, 
who  married  Priscella  Berry,  a  sister 
of  Henry  Berry,  the  other  grantee 
mentioned. 

' '  James  Lowrie  was  a  descendant  of 
James Lowrie,  of  Chesapeake,  who  mar- 
ried a  Croatan  woman  in  Virginia  (  as 
Eastern  North  Carolina  is  still  de- 
scribed by  the  tribe),  and  became  the 
progenitor  of  all  the  Lowries  belonging 
to  this  tribe. 

' '  According  to  the  traditions  respect- 


grant  of  land  to   any  of  this  tribe,  of    ing  this  family,  the  men  were  intel- 


which  there  is  any  written  evidence  in 
existence,  was  made  by  King  George 
the  Second,  1732,  to  Henry  Berry  and 
James  Lowrie,  two  leading  men  of  the 
tribe,  and  was  located  on  the  Lowrie 
swamp,  east  of  Lumber  river,  in  the 
present  county  of  Robeson,  in  North 
Carolina.  A  subsequent  grant  was 
made  to  James  Lowrie  in  1738. 

' '  According  to  tradition  there  were 
deeds  of  older  date,  described  as 
'White'  deeds  and  'Smith'  deeds, 
but  no  trace  of  them  can  be  found  at 
this  date. 

' '  Many  families  described  as  white 
.  people  emigrated  toward  the  Alleghany 
•mountains;  and  there  are  many  fami- 
lies   in    Western   North    Carolina    at 
tthis  time,  that  are  claimed  by  the  tribe 
<iin   Robeson  county  as  descend- 
ants of  the  lost  English  colonists, 
v  who  had  preserved  their  purity  of 
■?•  blood  to  that  degree  that  they 
»3  could  not  be  distinguished  from 
^ white  people. 

"These    Indians    built    great 
roads  connecting  the  distant  set- 
tlements with  their  principal  seat 
on  the  Lumbek,  as  the  Lumber 
river   was   then   called.     One   of 
these  roads  can  be  traced  from  a 
point  on  Lumber 
river   for    twenty 
miles  to  an  old  set- 
tlement near  the 
mouth  of  Heart's 
Creek. 

"James  Lowrie, 
previously  men- 
tioned as  one  of 
the  grantees  in  the 


lectual  and  ambitious  and  '  leaders 
among  men. '  Henry  Berry,  thegrantee 
mentioned,  was  a  lineal  descendant  of 
the  English  colonist,  Henry  Berry,  who 
was  left  on  Roanoke  Island  in  1587. 
Many  of  this  tribe  served  in  the  Conti- 
nental army  during  the  Revolutionary 
war,  and  enjoj^ed  pensions  within  the 
memory  of  persons  yet  living. 

' '  A  considerable  number  served  dur- 
ing the  war  of  181 2,  some  of  whom  re- 
ceived pensions  within  the  recollection 
of  the  writer.  Some  of  the  tribe  fought 
under  'Bonnull,'  as  they  term  Colonel 
Barnwell,  and  we  have  reliable  evi- 
dence that  they  brought  home  as  con- 
traband of  war  a  few  Mattamuskeet 
Indiatfs  as  their  prisoners  and  slaves. 
' '  The  name  Dare  was  not  recognized 
by  them  in  our  first  in- 
vestigation, but  we  after- 
ward discovered  that 
they  pronounced  the 
name  variously  as  Darr, 


Another  Type. 


CROATANS:    THE  LOST  COLONY  OF  AMERICA. 


199 


Dorr  and   Durr.     This  discovery  was 
made  when  we  related  to  an  old  chron- 
icler of  the  tribe  the  story  of  Virginia 
Dare,    the   first    white 
child  born  on  Ameri- 
can soil. 

' '  This  name  Dorr  ap- 
pears on  the  muster  roll 
of  18 1 2,  but  has  since 


" Mention  is  used  for  measurement, 
aks  for  ask,  hit  fur  it,  hosen  for  hose, 
loven    for   loving,    hoitscn    for  houses. 


$U  kfcr 


disappear- 
ed from  on 
the  Lum- 
ber  river. 

"Several  affirm  that  the 
Dares,  Harvies,  Coopers  and 
others  retained  their  purity  of 
blood,  and  were  generally  the 
pioneers  in  emigration.  Many 
names  are  corrupted  so  that 
it  is  difficult  to  trace  them. 

"  Traditions  are  fading  fast.  As  far 
back  as  1820  their  traditions  were  more 
vivid  than  now.  and  familiar  to  old  and 
young.  Now  you  will  find  their  ancient 
traditions  confined  to  a  comparatively 
few  old  persons.  The  language  spoken 
is  almost  pure  Anglo-Saxon,  a  fact 
which  we  think  affords  corroborative 
evidence  of  their  relation  to  the  lost  col- 
ony of  White. 

"Mon  is  used  for  man,  farther  for 
father,  and  a  tradition  is  usually  begun 
as  follows : 

"Mon,  my  fayther  told  me  that  his 
.fayther  told  him,  etc. 


. 


A  Croatan  Woman. 


They  seem  to  have  but  two  sounds  for 
the  letter  a,  one  like  short  o.  Many  of 
thewTords  in  common  use  among  them 
have  long  been  obsolete  in  English- 
speaking  countries,  and  this  is  corrob- 
orative of  the  truth  of  their  tradition 
that  they  are  the  descendants  of  the 
lost  Englishmen  of  Roanoke.  Their 
language  has  many  peculiarities,  and 
reminds  one  of  the  English  spoken  in 
the  days  of  Chaucer." 

"  In  traveling  on  foot  they  march  in 
'Indian  file,'  and  exhibit  a  fondness  for 
bright  red  colors.  They  unconsciously 
betray  many  other  traits  characteristic 


200 


CROATANS :    THE  LOST  COLONY  OF  AMERICA. 


*/ 


of  Indians.  The  custom  of  raising  small 
patches  of  tobacco  for  their  own  use 
has  been  handed  down  from  time  im- 
memorial. In  building  they  display  no 
little  architectural  skill.  In  road-mak- 
ing they  excel.  Some  of  the  best  roads 
in  North  Carolina 
can  be  found  with- 
in their  territory. 
They  are  univer- 
sally hospitable 
and  polite  to  stran- 
gers. They  are 
proud  of  their  race 
and  boast  of  their 
English  ancestry. 
Like  their  Indian 
ancestors,  they  are 
friendly  to  white 
men.  They  never 
forget  a  kindness, 
an  injury  nor  a 
debt.  In  common 
with  all  Indians 
they  have  a  great 
respect  for  Quak- 
ers, and  look  upon 
them  as  the  true 
friends  of  the  In- 
dians. In  the  olden  time  they  had 
houses  of  entertainment  for  travelers." 
V*1  The  chief  settlement  of  these  people 
to-day  is  Scuffletown  on  the  historic 
IyUmber  river.  This  river  pursues  a 
southeasterly  course  through  Scuffle- 
town.  Its  waters  are  very  dark,  and 
flow  swiftly  between  flat,  swampy 
banks.  Pine,  cypress  and  gum  trees 
thickly  stud  its  waters,  except  in  its 
deepest  and  swiftest  currents.  It  very 
rarely  confines  itself  to  one  current,  and 
lovely  islands  full  of  feathery  greenness 
are  constant  in  the  dark  stream.  The 
soil  of  the  flat  lands  bordering  the  river 
is  moderately  fertile  and  very  easily 
cultivated.  The  country  is  pretty,  but 
is  marred  somewhat  by  the  ever  present 
sameness  of  a  land  unvaried  by  hills 
and  diversity  of  forest ;  while  the  glare 
of  unending  reaches  of  white  sand  tire 
the  eyes  and  tan  the  complexion. 

The  Croatans  till  small  farms  and 
live  in  small  houses,  but  the  habita- 
tions have  an  air  of  homelike  conven- 
ience. Their dooryards  are  ornamented 
with  shrubs,  vines    and  flowers,   and 


1ft*! 

A  Croatan  Girl. 


their  gardens  are  large  and  stocked 
with  vegetables.  Their  farms  are  usu- 
ally a  clearing  of  four  or  five  acres  im- 
mediately surrounding  the  house.  A 
large  farm  is  a  rare  exception,  and  an 
evidence  of  superior  prosperity,  among 
these  primitive  people. 

The  women  and  children  cultivate 
the  tiny  crops,  principally  ;  while  the 
men  work  at  making  turpentine,  ditch 
for  the  neighboring  planters,  labor  at 
the  saw-mills,  make  splint  baskets, 
vessels  from  juniper,  and  pick  cotton 
to  earn  money  for  necessities  the  farms 
are  inadequate  to  produce. 

In  former  times,  no  doubt,  when  the 
swamps  were  full  of  game  and  the 
streams  were  more  prolific,  the  men 
hunted  and  fished,  and  the  women 
tilled  the  cleared  patches  of  land  ;  but 
with  the  coming  of  the  white  men 
they  forsook  fishing  and  hunting  to 
serve  for  hire.  Why  they  did  not 
enlarge  their  farms  and  embrace  the 
advantage  of  markets  brought  so  near 
them,  is  a  mystery  pertaining  to  their 
Indian  blood. 

With  their  English  thrift  and  economy, 
and  Indian  simplicity  and  seclusive- 
ness,  they  have  evolved  a  personality 
of  race  to  be  found  in  no  other  people 
in  existence.  They  are  extremely  in- 
teresting as  a  product  of  the  mingling 
of  two  distinct  races,  entirely  opposite 
to  each  otherinhabits, color  and  physic- 
al traits.  They  can  hardly  be  declared 
a  mixed  race  even  at  this  distant  day. 
The  physical  traits  of  each  were  so  in- 
destructible that  the}'  persist  in  declar- 
ing themselves  in  all  their  purity  after 
the  lapse  of  centuries.  There  was  not 
a  point,  it  seems,  at  which  their  blood 
could  mingle  and  produce  a  type  that 
would  harmoniously  combine  the  char- 
acteristics of  both  races.  When  a  Croa- 
tan is  English  he  is  almost  entirely  so  ; 
when  he  is  an  Indian  he  is  an  almost 
perfect  type  of  the  red  man,  robbed  of 
his  typical  sternness  by  civilized  habits 
and  surroundings. 

.  There  are  freaks  among  them,  in  whom 
the  color  is  pronounced  Indian  and  the 
features  pure  Anglo-Saxon.  Again  this 
type  is  reversed,  and  Indian  features 
are  clothed  in  a  fair,  rosy  complexion. 
Another  exception  is  an  amber-tinted 


CROATANS:    THE  LOST  COLONY  OF  AMERICA 


20I 


color,  with  the  features  of  either  race. 
There  are  fair  maidens  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  young  men  ;  and  maidens  and 
young  men  who  might  be  lineal  de- 
scendants of  Hiawatha  and  Minnehaha. 
As  the  men  grow  old  they  assume  the 
characteristics  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  typ- 
ically, while  the  women  seem  to  degen- 
erate into  the  Indian  type  phenom- 
enally. The}'  are  also  the  product  of  the 
coalescence  of  two  very  different  intel- 
lects ;  and  the  more  enlightened  mind 
of  the  civilized  man  must  have  domi- 
nated the  Indian  very  powerfully  to 
eliminate  the  language,  the  names  and 
the  uncleanly  sloth  of  the  savage/There 
is  not  an  Indian  word,  name  or  appel- 
lation among  them,  and  often  the)-  have 
an  exaggerated  habit  of  cleanliness. 
Their  uncarpeted  floors  are  scrubbed  to 
an  almost  snowy  whiteness,  their  un- 
painted  furniture  is  kept  in  the  same 
spotless  condition,  and  their  dooryards 
are  neat  and  tidy.  Their  dress  is  like 
that  of  an  ordinary  rural  people,  who 
wrork  and  pay  but  little  attention  to  the 
toilet. 

They  are  fond  of  bright  colors  and 
eschew  neutral  tints  in  dress  fabrics. 
Bright  pinks,  deep  reds,  vivid  greens, 
gay  plaids  and  dark  grounds  spangled 
with  large  flowers  or  mottled  with  in- 
tricate blossoming  vines  are  their  most 
popular  fancies  in  attiring  themselves. 
The}r  are  quick-witted  and  appreciative. 
As  a  race  they  are  unpresuming  and 
retiring,  the  more  benighted  ones  pre- 
ferring to  live  away  from  the  public 
highways  in  the  undisturbed  solitude 
of  the  swampy  pine  lands.  Their  im- 
plements of  agriculture  and  other  in- 
dustries are  like  those  of  the  white  peo- 
ple, with  whom  they  trade  almost  ex- 
clusively. The  Croatans,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  are  not  a  mercantile  people. 
They  have  no  means  but  what  is  at- 
tained by  patient  toil  and  stern  econ- 
omy, involving  much  self-denial.  The 
majority  of  them  can  read  and  write, 
and  some  have  sufficient  education  to 
thoroughly  appreciate  literature.  They 
thirst  for  knowledge  when  they  are  so 
enlightened  as  to  feel  their  need  of  it. 
A  newspaper  is  universally  prized 
among  them.  They  reverence  that 
medium  between  them  and  the  busy 


world  in  which  they  have  so  little  part. 
In  former  times  it  was  impossible  for  a 
Croatau  to  get  any  education  at  all  ex- 
cept by  hiring  some  one  to  teach  him 
privately,  and  this  was  difficult  and 
expensive.  When  the  free  schools  were 
established  for  the  colored  race  they 
were  given  the  privilege  of  attending 
them,  but  they  indignantly  declined  to 
do  so.  In  1885  they  were  given  sep- 
arate schools,  and  since  that  time  their 
progress  has  been  phenomenal.  Their 
public  school  houses,  built  entirely  by 
private  means,  are  all  frame,  and  are 
much  better  equipped  than  those  of  the 
colored  race.  By  an  act  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  North  Carolina,  passed  in 
1887,  the  Normal  School  for  teachers 
of  the  Croatan  race  was  established, 
and  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dollars  is 
annually  given  -by  the  State  for  its  sup- 
port. The  Normal  School  has  sent  out 
thirteen  instructors  for  the  race,  and  is 
doing  much  to  elevate  the  Croatans. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  thirty- 
seven  pupils  in  attendance,  but  all  are 
not  teachers.  The  children  of  the  public 
school  near  by  are  included  in  the  in- 
struction given  by  the  Principal,  be- 
cause the  attendance  after  the  spring 
opens  is  small,  and  separate  schools  at 
that  point  are  not  necessary.  The  Prin- 
cipal is  a  white  man,  a  graduate  of 
Edinburgh,  Scotland.  The  Croatans 
praise  him  warmly  for  his  conscientious 
work  in  their  behalf. 

There  are  about  two  thousand  five 
hundred  Croatans  in  Robeson  county  ; 
and  eleven  hundred  children  between 
the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years 
are  entitled  to  the  benefit  of  public  in- 
struction. They  generally  avail  them- 
selves of  this  opportunity  for  an  educa- 
tion. There  are  sixteen  churchesowned 
by  the  Croatans,  divided  between  the 
Baptist  and  Methodist  denominations. 
Their  churches  are  frame  buildings, 
but  like,  their  houses,  are  as  clean  as 
scrubbing  with  white  sand  can  make 
them.  They  are  austerely  furnished 
with  the  bare  necessities  of  pioneer 
worshippers. 

The  Croatans  as  a  people  are  de- 
voutly pious,  and  reverential  of  sacred 
things.  The  great  faith  which  illumined 
the  lives  of  their  English  ancestors  in 


CROATANS:   THE  LOST  COLONY  OF  AMERICA. 


the  vast  solitude  of  the  American  wilder- 
ness, and  the  sublime  conception  of  the 
Great  Spirit  embraced  by  Manteo  and 
his  people,  have  descended  as  a  re- 
demptory  benediction,  even  unto  the 
present  day,   upon  this  lowly  people. 

In  vScuffletown  are  many  names  de- 
rived from  the  English  colonists.  Low- 
ries  are  there  in  abundance.  Sampson, 
Brookes,  Allen,  Johnson,  Graham, 
Thompson  and  many  others,  identical 
with  the  lost  colony.  Many  of  the 
colonial  names  have  become  extinct, 
and  other  names,  through  inter-mar- 
riage with  settlers  around  them,  have 
become  incorporate  with  them. 

When  a  white  man  married  a  Cro- 
atan  woman,  the  children  of  such  a 
union,  with  their  father's  name,  became 
Croatans,  and  thus  French,  German, 
Irish  and  Scotch  names  are  among 
them.  In  the  original  colony  left  upon 
Roanoke  Island  were  one  hundred  and 
twenty  persons  in  all  ;  ninety-two 
men,  seventeen  women  and  eleven 
children,  including  the  two  who  were 
born  at  the  "city  of  Raleigh,"  on 
Roanoke  Island,  the  first  of  whom  was 
Virginia  Dare.  They  were  embraced 
in  ninety  family  names,  the  majority  of 
which  can  be  found  in  the  settlements 
on  the  Lumber  river.  This  must  be 
irrefutable  evidence  that  the  Croatans 
are  the  descendants  of  White's  colon}-. 
They  should  be  simply  Croatans,  not 
Indians  or  English. 

Through  misfortune  of  color  they  in- 
curred the  resentment  of  the  white  peo- 
ple in  the  unhappy  days  before  and 
after  the  Civil  war.     In  eager  but  sad 


tones  they  will  tell  you  how  they  suf- 
fered through  another  mongrel  race, 
the  ante-bellum  free  negro,  who  re- 
quired laws  to  regulate  his  behavior. 
Every  law  passed  for  the  free  negro's- 
government  was  enforced  upon  the 
proud,  harmless,  retiring  Croatans.  who 
only  asked  to  be  let  alone  in  their  pov- 
erty and  isolation.  The  blood  inherited 
from  the  proteges  of  the  might}-  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  and  the  royal  tribe 
of  Manteo,  "Lord  of  Roanoke  and 
Dasamonguepeuk,"  boiled  with  fiery 
but  impotent  indignation  when  those 
humiliating  laws  were  executed  upon 
them  by  uninformed  officials,  who  did 
not  know  or  care  about  the  extreme 
difference  between  a  Croatan  and  a  per- 
son with  African  blood  in  his  veins. 
Learned  men  came  to  their  rescue  in 
many  instances,  and  gained  the  eternal 
gratitude  of  the  oppressed  Croatans. 
This  wrong-doing  finally  ended  in  a  se- 
ries of  horrible  tragedies.  The  famous 
outlawry  of  Henry  Berry  Lowrie  and 
his  associates  was  a  result  of  those 
tyrannical  laws  unjustly  enforced.  One 
law  forbade  a  free  negro  to  carry  a  gun, 
and  the  Croatan 's  much-loved  weapon 
of  sport  was  wrested  from  him. 

As  a  people  the  Croatans  are  peace- 
able in  disposition,  but  wdien  aroused 
by  repeated  injury  they  will  fight  des- 
perately. The  great  mass  shun  notorie- 
ty, and  carefully  avoid  places  where 
crowds  of  other  races  assemble.  They 
are  exclusive  and  seclusive  ;  they  have 
the  combined  traits  of  English  and  In- 
dians ;  they  are  "  The  Lost  Colony  of 
America." 


/    /  I     y    \    \    \— \ 

In  the  Croatan  Public  School. 


■ 


